The C++ Tutorial

LearnCpp.com is a free website devoted to teaching you how to program in modern C++. The lessons on this site will walk you through all the steps needed to write, compile, and debug your C++ programs. No prior programming experience is necessary, but programmers of all levels will benefit from our best practices, tips, and insights.

Becoming an expert won’t happen overnight, but with a bit of patience, you’ll get there. And LearnCpp.com will show you the way.




Chapter 0
Introduction / Getting Started
0.1
Introduction to these tutorials
0.2
Introduction to programs and programming languages
0.3
Introduction to C/C++
0.4
Introduction to C++ development
0.5
Introduction to the compiler, linker, and libraries
0.6
Installing an Integrated Development Environment (IDE)
0.7
Compiling your first program
0.8
A few common C++ problems
0.9
Configuring your compiler: Build configurations
0.10
Configuring your compiler: Compiler extensions
0.11
Configuring your compiler: Warning and error levels
0.12
Configuring your compiler: Choosing a language standard
0.13
What language standard is my compiler using?
Chapter 1
C++ Basics
1.1
Statements and the structure of a program
1.2
Comments
1.3
Introduction to objects and variables
1.4
Variable assignment and initialization
1.5
Introduction to iostream: cout, cin, and endl
1.6
Uninitialized variables and undefined behavior
1.7
Keywords and naming identifiers
1.8
Whitespace and basic formatting
1.9
Introduction to literals and operators
1.10
Introduction to expressions
1.11
Developing your first program
1.x
Chapter 1 summary and quiz




Chapter 2
C++ Basics: Functions and Files
2.1
Introduction to functions
2.2
Function return values (value-returning functions)
2.3
Void functions (non-value returning functions)
2.4
Introduction to function parameters and arguments
2.5
Introduction to local scope
2.6
Why functions are useful, and how to use them effectively
2.7
Forward declarations and definitions
2.8
Programs with multiple code files
2.9
Naming collisions and an introduction to namespaces
2.10
Introduction to the preprocessor
2.11
Header files
2.12
Header guards
2.13
How to design your first programs
2.x
Chapter 2 summary and quiz
Chapter 3
Debugging C++ Programs
3.1
Syntax and semantic errors
3.2
The debugging process
3.3
A strategy for debugging
3.4
Basic debugging tactics
3.5
More debugging tactics
3.6
Using an integrated debugger: Stepping
3.7
Using an integrated debugger: Running and breakpoints
3.8
Using an integrated debugger: Watching variables
3.9
Using an integrated debugger: The call stack
3.10
Finding issues before they become problems
3.x
Chapter 3 summary and quiz
Chapter 4
Fundamental Data Types
4.1
Introduction to fundamental data types
4.2
Void
4.3
Object sizes and the sizeof operator
4.4
Signed integers
4.5
Unsigned integers, and why to avoid them
4.6
Fixed-width integers and size_t
4.7
Introduction to scientific notation
4.8
Floating point numbers
4.9
Boolean values
4.10
Introduction to if statements
4.11
Chars
4.12
Introduction to type conversion and static_cast
4.x
Chapter 4 summary and quiz
Chapter 5
Constants and Strings
5.1
Constant variables (named constants)
5.2
Literals
5.3
Numeral systems (decimal, binary, hexadecimal, and octal)
5.4
The as-if rule and compile-time optimization
Split
5.5
Constant expressions
Updated
5.6
Constexpr variables
5.7
Introduction to std::string
5.8
Introduction to std::string_view
5.9
std::string_view (part 2)
5.x
Chapter 5 summary and quiz
Chapter 6
Operators
6.1
Operator precedence and associativity
6.2
Arithmetic operators
6.3
Remainder and Exponentiation
6.4
Increment/decrement operators, and side effects
6.5
The comma operator
6.6
The conditional operator
Moved
6.7
Relational operators and floating point comparisons
6.8
Logical operators
6.x
Chapter 6 summary and quiz
Chapter O
Bit Manipulation (optional chapter)
O.1
Bit flags and bit manipulation via std::bitset
O.2
Bitwise operators
O.3
Bit manipulation with bitwise operators and bit masks
O.4
Converting integers between binary and decimal representation
Chapter 7
Scope, Duration, and Linkage
7.1
Compound statements (blocks)
7.2
User-defined namespaces and the scope resolution operator
7.3
Local variables
7.4
Introduction to global variables
7.5
Variable shadowing (name hiding)
7.6
Internal linkage
7.7
External linkage and variable forward declarations
7.8
Why (non-const) global variables are evil
7.9
Inline functions and variables
Moved
7.10
Sharing global constants across multiple files (using inline variables)
7.11
Static local variables
7.12
Scope, duration, and linkage summary
7.13
Using declarations and using directives
7.14
Unnamed and inline namespaces
7.x
Chapter 7 summary and quiz
Chapter 8
Control Flow
8.1
Control flow introduction
8.2
If statements and blocks
8.3
Common if statement problems
8.4
Constexpr if statements
8.5
Switch statement basics
8.6
Switch fallthrough and scoping
8.7
Goto statements
8.8
Introduction to loops and while statements
8.9
Do while statements
8.10
For statements
8.11
Break and continue
8.12
Halts (exiting your program early)
8.13
Introduction to random number generation
8.14
Generating random numbers using Mersenne Twister
8.15
Global random numbers (Random.h)
8.x
Chapter 8 summary and quiz
Chapter 9
Error Detection and Handling
9.1
Introduction to testing your code
9.2
Code coverage
9.3
Common semantic errors in C++
9.4
Detecting and handling errors
9.5
std::cin and handling invalid input
9.6
Assert and static_assert
9.x
Chapter 9 summary and quiz
Chapter 10
Type Conversion, Type Aliases, and Type Deduction
10.1
Implicit type conversion
10.2
Floating-point and integral promotion
10.3
Numeric conversions
10.4
Narrowing conversions, list initialization, and constexpr initializers
10.5
Arithmetic conversions
10.6
Explicit type conversion (casting) and static_cast
10.7
Typedefs and type aliases
10.8
Type deduction for objects using the auto keyword
10.9
Type deduction for functions
10.x
Chapter 10 summary and quiz
Chapter 11
Function Overloading and Function Templates
11.1
Introduction to function overloading
11.2
Function overload differentiation
11.3
Function overload resolution and ambiguous matches
11.4
Deleting functions
11.5
Default arguments
11.6
Function templates
11.7
Function template instantiation
11.8
Function templates with multiple template types
11.9
Non-type template parameters
11.10
Using function templates in multiple files
11.x
Chapter 11 summary and quiz
Chapter F
Constexpr functions
F.1
Constexpr functions
Moved
F.2
Constexpr functions (part 2)
Split
F.3
Constexpr functions (part 3) and consteval
Split
F.4
Constexpr functions (part 4)
Split
F.X
Chapter F summary and quiz
Split
Chapter 12
Compound Types: References and Pointers
12.1
Introduction to compound data types
12.2
Value categories (lvalues and rvalues)
12.3
Lvalue references
12.4
Lvalue references to const
12.5
Pass by lvalue reference
12.6
Pass by const lvalue reference
12.7
Introduction to pointers
12.8
Null pointers
12.9
Pointers and const
12.10
Pass by address
12.11
Pass by address (part 2)
12.12
Return by reference and return by address
12.13
In and out parameters
12.14
Type deduction with pointers, references, and const
12.15
std::optional
12.x
Chapter 12 summary and quiz
Chapter 13
Compound Types: Enums and Structs
13.1
Introduction to program-defined (user-defined) types
13.2
Unscoped enumerations
13.3
Unscoped enumerator integral conversions
13.4
Converting an enumeration to and from a string
13.5
Introduction to overloading the I/O operators
13.6
Scoped enumerations (enum classes)
13.7
Introduction to structs, members, and member selection
13.8
Struct aggregate initialization
13.9
Default member initialization
13.10
Passing and returning structs
13.11
Struct miscellany
13.12
Member selection with pointers and references
13.13
Class templates
13.14
Class template argument deduction (CTAD) and deduction guides
13.15
Alias templates
13.x
Chapter 13 summary and quiz
13.y
Using a language reference
Chapter 14
Introduction to Classes
14.1
Introduction to object-oriented programming
14.2
Introduction to classes
14.3
Member functions
14.4
Const class objects and const member functions
14.5
Public and private members and access specifiers
14.6
Access functions
14.7
Member functions returning references to data members
14.8
The benefits of data hiding (encapsulation)
14.9
Introduction to constructors
14.10
Constructor member initializer lists
14.11
Default constructors and default arguments
14.12
Delegating constructors
14.13
Temporary class objects
14.14
Introduction to the copy constructor
14.15
Class initialization and copy elision
14.16
Converting constructors and the explicit keyword
14.17
Constexpr aggregates and classes
14.x
Chapter 14 summary and quiz
Chapter 15
More on Classes
15.1
The hidden “this” pointer and member function chaining
15.2
Classes and header files
15.3
Nested types (member types)
15.4
Introduction to destructors
15.5
Class templates with member functions
15.6
Static member variables
15.7
Static member functions
15.8
Friend non-member functions
15.9
Friend classes and friend member functions
15.10
Ref qualifiers
15.x
Chapter 15 summary and quiz
Chapter 16
Dynamic arrays: std::vector
16.1
Introduction to containers and arrays
16.2
Introduction to std::vector and list constructors
16.3
std::vector and the unsigned length and subscript problem
16.4
Passing std::vector
16.5
Returning std::vector, and an introduction to move semantics
16.6
Arrays and loops
16.7
Arrays, loops, and sign challenge solutions
16.8
Range-based for loops (for-each)
16.9
Array indexing and length using enumerators
16.10
std::vector resizing and capacity
16.11
std::vector and stack behavior
16.12
std::vector<bool>
16.x
Chapter 16 summary and quiz
Chapter 17
Fixed-size arrays: std::array and C-style arrays
17.1
Introduction to std::array
17.2
std::array length and indexing
17.3
Passing and returning std::array
17.4
std::array of class types, and brace elision
17.5
Arrays of references via std::reference_wrapper
17.6
std::array and enumerations
17.7
Introduction to C-style arrays
17.8
C-style array decay
17.9
Pointer arithmetic and subscripting
17.10
C-style strings
17.11
C-style string symbolic constants
17.12
Multidimensional C-style Arrays
17.13
Multidimensional std::array
17.x
Chapter 17 summary and quiz
Chapter 18
Iterators and Algorithms (under construction)
18.1
Sorting an array using selection sort
18.2
Introduction to iterators
18.3
Introduction to standard library algorithms
18.4
Timing your code
Chapter 19
Dynamic Allocation (under construction)
19.1
Dynamic memory allocation with new and delete
19.2
Dynamically allocating arrays
19.3
Destructors
19.4
Pointers to pointers and dynamic multidimensional arrays
19.5
Void pointers
Chapter 20
Functions
20.1
Function Pointers
20.2
The stack and the heap
20.3
Recursion
20.4
Command line arguments
20.5
Ellipsis (and why to avoid them)
20.6
Introduction to lambdas (anonymous functions)
20.7
Lambda captures
20.x
Chapter 20 summary and quiz
Chapter 21
Operator Overloading
21.1
Introduction to operator overloading
21.2
Overloading the arithmetic operators using friend functions
21.3
Overloading operators using normal functions
21.4
Overloading the I/O operators
21.5
Overloading operators using member functions
21.6
Overloading unary operators +, -, and !
21.7
Overloading the comparison operators
21.8
Overloading the increment and decrement operators
21.9
Overloading the subscript operator
21.10
Overloading the parenthesis operator
21.11
Overloading typecasts
21.12
Overloading the assignment operator
21.13
Shallow vs. deep copying
21.14
Overloading operators and function templates
21.x
Chapter 21 summary and quiz
21.y
Chapter 21 project
Chapter 22
Move Semantics and Smart Pointers
22.1
Introduction to smart pointers and move semantics
22.2
R-value references
22.3
Move constructors and move assignment
22.4
std::move
22.5
std::unique_ptr
22.6
std::shared_ptr
22.7
Circular dependency issues with std::shared_ptr, and std::weak_ptr
22.x
Chapter 22 summary and quiz
Chapter 23
Object Relationships
23.1
Object relationships
23.2
Composition
23.3
Aggregation
23.4
Association
23.5
Dependencies
23.6
Container classes
23.7
std::initializer_list
23.x
Chapter 23 summary and quiz
Chapter 24
Inheritance
24.1
Introduction to inheritance
24.2
Basic inheritance in C++
24.3
Order of construction of derived classes
24.4
Constructors and initialization of derived classes
24.5
Inheritance and access specifiers
24.6
Adding new functionality to a derived class
24.7
Calling inherited functions and overriding behavior
24.8
Hiding inherited functionality
24.9
Multiple inheritance
24.x
Chapter 24 summary and quiz
Chapter 25
Virtual Functions
25.1
Pointers and references to the base class of derived objects
25.2
Virtual functions and polymorphism
25.3
The override and final specifiers, and covariant return types
25.4
Virtual destructors, virtual assignment, and overriding virtualization
25.5
Early binding and late binding
25.6
The virtual table
25.7
Pure virtual functions, abstract base classes, and interface classes
25.8
Virtual base classes
25.9
Object slicing
25.10
Dynamic casting
25.11
Printing inherited classes using operator<<
25.x
Chapter 25 summary and quiz
Chapter 26
Templates and Classes
26.1
Template classes
26.2
Template non-type parameters
26.3
Function template specialization
26.4
Class template specialization
26.5
Partial template specialization
26.6
Partial template specialization for pointers
26.x
Chapter 26 summary and quiz
Chapter 27
Exceptions
27.1
The need for exceptions
27.2
Basic exception handling
27.3
Exceptions, functions, and stack unwinding
27.4
Uncaught exceptions and catch-all handlers
27.5
Exceptions, classes, and inheritance
27.6
Rethrowing exceptions
27.7
Function try blocks
27.8
Exception dangers and downsides
27.9
Exception specifications and noexcept
27.10
std::move_if_noexcept
27.x
Chapter 27 summary and quiz
Chapter 28
Input and Output (I/O)
28.1
Input and output (I/O) streams
28.2
Input with istream
28.3
Output with ostream and ios
28.4
Stream classes for strings
28.5
Stream states and input validation
28.6
Basic file I/O
28.7
Random file I/O
Appendix A
Miscellaneous Subjects
A.1
Static and dynamic libraries
A.2
Using libraries with Visual Studio
A.3
Using libraries with Code::Blocks
A.4
C++ FAQ
Appendix B
C++ Updates
B.1
Introduction to C++11
B.2
Introduction to C++14
B.3
Introduction to C++17
B.4
Introduction to C++20
B.5
Introduction to C++23
Appendix C
The End
C.1
The end?
Appendix D
Deprecated Articles (will be removed soon)
21.1
The Standard Library
21.2
STL containers overview
21.3
STL iterators overview
21.4
STL algorithms overview
22.1
std::string and std::wstring
22.2
std::string construction and destruction
22.3
std::string length and capacity
22.4
std::string character access and conversion to C-style arrays
22.5
std::string assignment and swapping
22.6
std::string appending
22.7
std::string inserting